Viral and Vaccine Immunology Lab
Melbourne VIC Australia
Publications
Randomized controlled trial reveals no benefit to a 3-month delay in COVID-19 mRNA booster vaccine
J Clin Invest; doi: 10.1172/JCI181244
Wen Shi Lee et al
BACKGROUND: There is uncertainty about the timing of booster vaccination against COVID-19 in highly vaccinated populations during the present endemic phase of COVID-19. Studies focused on primary vaccination have previously suggested improved immunity with a longer interval between the first and second vaccine doses.
METHODS: We conducted a randomized, controlled trial (November 2022-August 2023) and assigned 52 fully vaccinated adults to an immediate or a 3-month delayed bivalent Spikevax mRNA booster vaccine. Follow-up visits were completed for 48 participants (n = 24 per arm), with collection of saliva and plasma samples following each visit.
RESULTS: The rise in neutralizing antibody responses to ancestral and Omicron strains were almost identical between the immediate and delayed vaccination arms. Analyses of plasma and salivary antibody responses (IgG, IgA), plasma antibody-dependent phagocytic activity, and the decay kinetics of antibody responses were similar between the 2 arms. Symptomatic and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections occurred in 49% (21 of 49) participants over the median 11.5 months of follow-up and were also similar between the 2 arms.
CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that there was no benefit in delaying COVID-19 mRNA booster vaccination in preimmune populations during the present endemic phase of COVID-19.
TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number 12622000411741
Durable reprogramming of neutralizing antibody responses following Omicron breakthrough infection
Science Advances; DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg5301
Wen Shi Lee and Hyon-Xhi Tan et al
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) breakthrough infection of vaccinated individuals is increasingly common with the circulation of highly immune evasive and transmissible Omicron variants. Here, we report the dynamics and durability of recalled spike-specific humoral immunity following Omicron BA.1 or BA.2 breakthrough infection, with longitudinal sampling up to 8 months after infection. Both BA.1 and BA.2 infections robustly boosted neutralization activity against the infecting strain while expanding breadth against BA.4, although neutralization activity was substantially reduced for the more recent XBB and BQ.1.1 strains. Cross-reactive memory B cells against both ancestral and Omicron spike were predominantly expanded by infection, with limited recruitment of de novo Omicron-specific B cells or antibodies. Modeling of neutralization titers predicts that protection from symptomatic reinfection against antigenically similar strains will be durable but is undermined by new emerging strains with further neutralization escape.
Cytokines enhance human Vγ9Vδ2 T-cell TCR-dependent and TCR-independent effector functions
Eur J Immunol; doi: 10.1002/eji.202250220
Kirsty Field et al
Vγ9Vδ2 T cells can recognize various molecules associated with cellular stress or transformation, providing a unique avenue for the treatment of cancers or infectious diseases. Nonetheless, Vγ9Vδ2 T-cell-based immunotherapies frequently achieve suboptimal efficacies in vivo. Enhancing the cytotoxic effector function of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells is one potential avenue through which the immunotherapeutic potential of this subset may be improved. We compared the use of four pro-inflammatory cytokines on the effector phenotype and functions of in vitro expanded Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, and demonstrated TCR-independent cytotoxicity mediated through CD26, CD16, and NKG2D, which could be further enhanced by IL-23, IL-18, and IL-15 stimulation throughout expansion. This work defines promising culture conditions that could improve Vγ9Vδ2 T-cell-based immunotherapies and furthers our understanding of how this subset might recognize and target transformed or infected cells.
SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infection induces rapid memory and de novo T cell responses
Immunity; 56(4):879-892.e4
Marios Koutsakos et al
Although the protective role of neutralizing antibodies against COVID-19 is well established, questions remain about the relative importance of cellular immunity. Using 6 pMHC multimers in a cohort with early and frequent sampling, we define the phenotype and kinetics of recalled and primary T cell responses following Delta or Omicron breakthrough infection in previously vaccinated individuals. Recall of spike-specific CD4+ T cells was rapid, with cellular proliferation and extensive activation evident as early as 1 day post symptom onset. Similarly, spike-specific CD8+ T cells were rapidly activated but showed variable degrees of expansion. The frequency of activated SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells at baseline and peak inversely correlated with peak SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels in nasal swabs and accelerated viral clearance. Our study demonstrates that a rapid and extensive recall of memory T cell populations occurs early after breakthrough infection and suggests that CD8+ T cells contribute to the control of viral replication in breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections.
Engineered Ferritin Nanoparticle Vaccines Enable Rapid Screening of Antibody Functionalization to Boost Immune Responses
Adv Healthc Mater; doi: 10.1002/adhm.202202595
Mai Vu et al
Employing monoclonal antibodies to target vaccine antigens to different immune cells within lymph nodes where adaptive immunity is initiated can provide a mechanism to fine-tune the magnitude or the quality of immune responses. However, studying the effects of different targeting antibodies head-to-head is challenging due to the lack of a feasible method that allows rapid screening of multiple antibodies for their impact on immunogenicity. Here self-assembling ferritin nanoparticles are prepared that co-display vaccine antigens and the Fc-binding domain of Staphylococcal protein A, allowing rapid attachment of soluble antibodies to the nanoparticle surface. Using this tunable system, ten antibodies targeting different immune cell subsets are screened, with targeting to Clec9a associated with higher serum antibody titers after immunization. Immune cell targeting using ferritin nanoparticles with anti-Clec9a antibodies drives concentrated deposition of antigens within germinal centers, boosting germinal center formation and robust antibody responses. However, the capacity to augment humoral immunity is antigen-dependent, with significant boosting observed for prototypic ovalbumin immunogens but reduced effectiveness with the SARS-CoV-2 RBD. This work provides a rapid platform for screening targeting antibodies, which will accelerate mechanistic insights into optimal delivery strategies for nanoparticle-based vaccines to maximize protective immunity.
Phenotypic and functional characterization of pharmacologically expanded Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in pigtail macaques
iScience, 26(3):106269
Isaac Barber-Axthelm er al.
While gaining interest as treatment for cancer and infectious disease, the clinical efficacy of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell-based immunotherapeutics has to date been limited. An improved understanding of γδ T cell heterogeneity across lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues, before and after pharmacological expansion, is required. Here, we describe the phenotype and tissue distribution of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells at steady state and following in vivo pharmacological expansion in pigtail macaques. Intravenous phosphoantigen administration with subcutaneous rhIL-2 drove robust expansion of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in blood and pulmonary mucosa, while expansion was confined to the pulmonary mucosa following intratracheal antigen administration. Peripheral blood Vγ9Vδ2 T cell expansion was polyclonal, and associated with a significant loss of CCR6 expression due to IL-2-mediated receptor downregulation. Overall, we show the tissue distribution and phenotype of in vivo pharmacologically expanded Vγ9Vδ2 T cells can be altered based on the antigen administration route, with implications for tissue trafficking and the clinical efficacy of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell immunotherapeutics.
Nice and slow make the germinal centers go: measured and escalating antigen delivery enhance durability and quality of humoral immune responses against HIV-1
Immunology and Cell Biology
Hyon Xhi Tan et al
A recently published article has confirmed that a novel immunization method of sustained and escalating antigen delivery augments the magnitude, quality and durability of humoral immune responses. For decades, effective human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) vaccines have been elusive, with phase 3 trials showing minimal or no efficacy so far. Recently, passive transfer of broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies into humans confirmed prior results from macaques that neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) play a key role in preventing infection.1 A long-standing challenge has been eliciting analogous broadly nAbs via vaccination to protect against most circulating strains, or so-called Tier 2 neutralizing responses. Nonetheless, innovations in HIV-1 vaccine design have seen significant stepwise advancements, including immunogen designs for more native-like Env trimer presentation that allow targeting of critical epitopes, development of improved adjuvants and more recently, leveraging frontier vaccine platforms such as mRNA-lipid nanoparticles2 or self-assembling nanoparticle arrays (eOD-GT8 60mer) to selectively elicit rare broadly neutralizing responses.
The magnitude and timing of recalled immunity after breakthrough infection is shaped by SARS-CoV-2 variants
Immunity; 55(7):1316-1326.e4
Wen Shi Lee, Marios Koutsakos et al
Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 protects from infection and improves clinical outcomes in breakthrough infections, likely reflecting residual vaccine-elicited immunity and recall of immunological memory. Here, we define the early kinetics of spike-specific humoral and cellular immunity after vaccination of seropositive individuals and after Delta or Omicron breakthrough infection in vaccinated individuals. Early longitudinal sampling revealed the timing and magnitude of recall, with the phenotypic activation of B cells preceding an increase in neutralizing antibody titers. While vaccination of seropositive individuals resulted in robust recall of humoral and T cell immunity, recall of vaccine-elicited responses was delayed and variable in magnitude during breakthrough infections and depended on the infecting variant of concern. While the delayed kinetics of immune recall provides a potential mechanism for the lack of early control of viral replication, the recall of antibodies coincided with viral clearance and likely underpins the protective effects of vaccination against severe COVID-19.
Establishment and recall of SARS-CoV-2 spike epitope-specific CD4+ T cell memory
Nature Immunology; 23, pages 768–780 (2022)
Kathleen Wragg, Wen Shi Lee, Marios Koutsakos et al
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and vaccination elicit CD4+ T cell responses to the spike protein, including circulating follicular helper T (cTFH) cells that correlate with neutralizing antibodies. Using a novel HLA-DRB1*15:01/S751 tetramer to track spike-specific CD4+ T cells, we show that primary infection or vaccination induces robust S751-specific CXCR5− and cTFH cell memory responses. Secondary exposure induced recall of CD4+ T cells with a transitory CXCR3+ phenotype, and drove expansion of cTFH cells transiently expressing ICOS, CD38 and PD-1. In both contexts, cells exhibited a restricted T cell antigen receptor repertoire, including a highly public clonotype and considerable clonotypic overlap between CXCR5− and cTFH populations. Following a third vaccine dose, the rapid re-expansion of spike-specific CD4+ T cells contrasted with the comparatively delayed increase in antibody titers. Overall, we demonstrate that stable pools of cTFH and memory CD4+ T cells established by infection and/or vaccination are efficiently recalled upon antigen reexposure and may contribute to long-term protection against SARS-CoV-2.
Disentangling the relative importance of T cell responses in COVID-19: leading actors or supporting cast?
Nature Reviews Immunology; volume 22, pages387–397 (2022)
Stephen Kent et al
The rapid development of multiple vaccines providing strong protection from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has been a major achievement. There is now compelling evidence for the role of neutralizing antibodies in protective immunity. T cells may play a role in resolution of primary SARS-CoV-2 infection, and there is a widely expressed view that T cell-mediated immunity also plays an important role in vaccine-mediated protection. Here we discuss the role of vaccine-induced T cells in two distinct stages of infection: firstly, in protection from acquisition of symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection following exposure; secondly, if infection does occur, the potential for T cells to reduce the risk of developing severe COVID-19. We describe several lines of evidence that argue against a direct impact of vaccine-induced memory T cells in preventing symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the contribution of T cell immunity in reducing the severity of infection, particularly in infection with SARS-CoV-2 variants, remains to be determined. A detailed understanding of the role of T cells in COVID-19 is critical for next-generation vaccine design and development. Here we discuss the challenges in determining a causal relationship between vaccine-induced T cell immunity and protection from COVID-19 and propose an approach to gather the necessary evidence to clarify any role for vaccine-induced T cell memory in protection from severe COVID-19.
Lung-resident memory B cells established after pulmonary influenza infection display distinct transcriptional and phenotypic profiles
Science Immunology; Vol7 Issue67 (2022)
Hyon Xhi Tan et al
Antigen-experienced memory B cells (MBCs) can take up long-term residency in tissues, yet how B resident memory cells (BRM) are recruited and retained in tissues is not well understood. Tan et al. used a murine influenza infection model to characterize BRM in the lung. Influenza-specific BRM expressed lung residency markers CXCR3, CCR6, and CD69, were located in inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue, and had transcriptional profiles distinct from circulating or splenic MBCs. CCR6 expression on BRM facilitated recruitment, retention, and recall in the lung. Human influenza-specific BRM were also transcriptionally distinct to circulating or lymph node MBCs and highly expressed CCR6 and CXCR3, as well as CD69. These findings demonstrate that influenza infection induces a distinct population of BRM in the lungs of mice and humans
SARS-CoV-2 Infection Induces Robust Germinal Center Activity in the Human Tonsil
J Immunol, 208(10):2267-2271
Hyon Xhi Tan et al
Understanding the generation of immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in lymphoid tissues draining the site of infection has implications for immunity to SARS-CoV-2. We performed tonsil biopsies under local anesthesia in 19 subjects who had recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection 24-225 d previously. The biopsies yielded >3 million cells for flow cytometric analysis in 17 subjects. Total and SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific germinal center B cells, and T follicular helper cells, were readily detectable in human tonsils early after SARS-CoV-2 infection, as assessed by flow cytometry. Responses were higher in samples within 2 mo of infection but still detectable in some subjects out to 7 mo following infection. We conclude the tonsils are a secondary lymphoid organ that develop germinal center responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and could play a role in the long-term development of immunity.